Specification: The influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of an internal working model.

Internal Working Model

The notion of an internal working model was proposed by Bowlby (1969). It is a template of expectations, like a schema, about how to relate to others formed by early experiences with the primary caregiver and the type of attachment formed. Through this important early relationship with their primary caregiver, which Bowlby termed a monotropy, an infant learns what a relationship is, how it is formed, and patterns of behaviour about how individuals relate to one another in partnerships. 

The internal working model of an infant is thought to predict the likely outcomes of behaviour in childhood and adulthood. For example, an infant who has experienced sensitive responsiveness from their caregiver will likely form a secure attachment type and come to expect functional, reliable and loving relationships in the future. Conversely, an infant who has poor early experiences in forming an attachment are more likely to behave inappropriately in future relationships or struggle to form any at all. 

Relationships in Childhood

Kerns (1994) found that securely attached infants are more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood whilst infants with insecure attachment types are likely to have difficulties with making or maintaining friendships. 

Sroufe et al. (2005) conducted the Minnesota child–parent study and found that infants who were rated high in social competence during childhood were more empathetic, popular and felt less isolated. These results can be easily understood by considering the role of the internal working model since infants who are securely attached will have positive expectations that others whom they relate to will be trustworthy and friendly in return, which provides the ideal platform for interacting with others during childhood. 

Relationships in Adulthood: Romantic Key Study: Hazan And Shaver (1987)

Aim: A questionnaire, termed the ‘Love Quiz’, designed to test the internal working model to assess if attachment type formed as an infant influences friendships and adult relationships. 

Method: The ‘Love Quiz’, comprising three sections, was published in a local American newspaper and received 620 volunteer responses (205 males and 415 females). The first section was designed to assess the individuals’ most important relationship. The second section focused on ascertaining general experiences in love and the third part asked self-selecting participants about their feelings in relation to some statements. 

Results: It was found that 56% respondents were classified as securely attached, 25% with an insecure– avoidant attachment type and 19% as being insecure–resistant. A positive correlation was found between early attachment type and experiences in love with those reporting secure attachments in childhood being the most likely to have loving and lasting romantic relationships. Respondents whose answers indicated an insecure–avoidant attachment type from infancy were more likely to report feeling of dislike in relation to intimacy. Those individuals with an insecure–resistant attachment type were more likely to have shorter relationships, approximately six years, compared to secure respondents who averaged relationship durations of ten years or more, on average. 

Conclusion: The findings analysed from the ‘Love Quiz’ indicate that specific attachment type behaviours are reflected in adult romantic relationships because of an internal working model formed in infancy to guide expectations. 

Relationships in Adulthood: Parenting

The internal working model not only influences adult romantic relationships but also the parenting style of an individual who goes on to have children of their own. As a result of parenting styles being based on personal experiences and expectations of the internal working model, attachment type tends to be passed down through the generations of a family. 

Bailey et al. (2007) looked at the attachment type of nearly 100 mothers and their infants (assessed in the strange situation) with the relationships they had with their own mothers (established in an interview). It was found that a vast proportion of the women had the same attachment type to their infant as to their own mother, supporting the concept of the internal working model influencing parenting style. Likewise, findings from Harlow’s study using non-human animals also mirror this pattern. Monkeys with poor or no attachments were seen to experience difficulties with parenting because of their early, formative experiences. 

Evaluation

There is mixed research in determining continuity of attachment type from childhood to adulthood. Zimmerman (2000) suggests that infant attachment type classification and the quality of relationships with parents during adolescence are not related. These findings do not support the role of the internal working model being important in the development of childhood and adult relationships, casting doubt on the emphasis placed on this concept by developmental psychologists such as Bowlby. 

An issue with research into the influence of attachment on later relationships and the role the internal working model must play in this is only correlational. Whilst an association has been found by many researchers indicating the quality of later relationships is heavily influenced by attachment type from infancy, this is does not determine causality. Fraley et al. (2002) found that the correlations were not always strong positive ones either, with correlation coefficients ranging from +.10 to +.50. This means that correlational research in this area is not very reliable due to an unstable array of results. 

There are methodological issues with assessing attachment type retrospectively. Much research, such as the ‘Love Quiz’ by Hazan and Shaver rely upon self-report from adult participants about their memories from infancy and childhood. Recollection from years gone by are likely to be impaired and any answers provided may lack accuracy due to deterioration which lowers the internal validity of findings. This problem is further compounded by the possibility that individuals may not report honestly or even have an insight into their own template of expectations since the internal working model in an unconscious framework. 

Research into the impact of attachment on childhood and adult relationships have very set views on the outcomes for future behaviour. For example, an infant with an insecure attachment type will be doomed to experience poor quality and unsatisfying relationships in later life as a result of the internal working model formed in infancy from bad experiences with their primary caregiver. This approach can be criticised as being overly deterministic suggesting that there is no room for an alternative path to unfold. Research has documented instances of individuals who have had a happy relationship in adulthood despite a troublesome start which means that Bowlby may have overestimated the role of the internal working model.