Specification: Learning approaches: social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research.
Assumptions
Learning occurs through observation, imitation and reinforcement
Behaviour is learnt indirectly though observing the consequences of other people’s actions (vicarious reinforcement)
SLT also focuses on how cognitive factors affect learning – known as mediational processes
Behaviour is more likely to occur when observing a role model who we identify with
Social learning theory
Social learning theory (SLT) rests on the idea of observational learning: that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models, who model behaviour in a social environment. Unlike the behaviourist approach, from which it derives, SLT recognises the importance of cognitive processes - mediational processes - and rejects the notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop.
As its name implies, learning is a social phenomenon. In order for learning to take place, someone must model an attitude or behaviour. If the person observing the behaviour sees the person as a ‘role model’, they will identify with them. Identification involves associating with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models, to become more like that person. There is evidence, from Shutts et al., 2010, to suggest
that for children, the age and gender similarity to models is an important determinant of imitation. This cognitive appraisal process clearly distinguishes SLT from the more deterministic behaviourist approach.
SLT is defined by four distinct mediational, or mental, processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. If these factors are implemented, imitation (i.e. copying of what has been observed) can take place; if the observed behaviour is rewarded, imitation is more likely. This learning from the observation of others is what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement.
Exam Hint: SLT is different to the other behaviourist theories, as it takes into the account the role of mediational processes (thoughts). According to Bandura, for SLT to take place, a person will form a mental representation of the behaviour and weigh up the pros and cons of being rewarded, before copying the behaviour. If the pros outweigh the cons, then they will imitate the observed behaviour.
Bandura conducted a series of experiments examining SLT as he believed that observational learning, which he called modelling, is the most important process in human learning.
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) – The bobo doll experiment
Aim: To investigate whether aggression can be learned through social learning theory principles.
Method: 72 children (36 male and 36 female) aged between 3 and 6 years old were put into one of three groups for 10 minutes:
1) Aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult hit and shouted at a “Bobo doll”: a plastic inflatable toy doll which was heavy at the bottom and wobbled when hit. This group was further subdivided by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating four conditions.
2) Non-aggressive model – the child played in a room while an adult played quietly with a construction set. This group was further sub-divided once again by the gender of the child and the adult model, creating another four conditions.
3) Control group – the child did not see a model. The children were deliberately frustrated by being taken into another room where they were told that they could not play with any toys. Then, they were placed alone in a room with a range of aggressive toys (mallet, gun) and non-aggressive toys (dolls, crayons) and the Bobo doll for twenty minutes whilst being observed.
Results: Children who saw the aggressive model produced more aggressive acts than those in either of the other two groups. Boys imitated same-sex models more than girls. Girls imitated more physical aggression if they saw male models, and more verbal aggression if they saw female models.
Conclusion: Aggressive behaviour can be learned, in children, through observation and imitation of a model.
Evaluation of social learning theory
One strength of SLT is its plentiful research support. For example, Fox and Bailenson (2009) found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves; Rushton and Campbell (1977) found that same-sex modelling significantly increased the number of female observers who agreed to, and then actually did, donate blood; and Myers (2015) confirmed the importance of vicarious learning for the effectiveness of workplace teams. These studies demonstrate support for different aspects of SLT, including modelling and vicarious reinforcement, adding credibility to the key principles of this theory.
The methodology used in the research to support SLT has been criticised. Bandura made extensive use of the experimental laboratory method, which is artificial, strictly-controlled and contrived in its very nature. As a result, there is the possibility of demand characteristics occurring whereby the children pick up on cues in the environment, guess the aim of the investigation and adjust their behaviour accordingly, lowering the internal validity of the study. Therefore, the participants may have been acting in an aggressive way towards the Bobo doll because that is what they thought was expected of them rather than it being a genuine and new learned behaviour.
A strength of SLT is its application to real-world issues. It has long been a feature in explanations of criminal behaviour (Sykes and Matza, 1957) and recent research has continued that focus (Akers, 1998). It has also been used to examine and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising: Andsager et al. (2006) found that ‘identification with a character or example may increase the likelihood that audiences will model behaviour presented in an anti-alcohol message’. Consequently, the principles of SLT can be used to provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns, and indirectly help combat problem behaviours like alcoholism.
One limitation of SLT revolves around the issue of causality. It is not clear if people learn behaviour from models, or if they seek out models who exhibit behaviour or attitudes they already favour. Siegel and McCormick (2006), for example, argue that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly-inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT itself. Also, SLT struggles to explain complex behaviours like gender development. Children are exposed to a whole host of influences when growing up, and these different influences interact in a complex way. Consequently, it is difficult to distinguish behaviours that develop because of SLT from the many other factors that contribute to human behaviour, which poses an issue for the social learning explanation of behaviour.
Issues and debates
Social learning theorists recognise that behaviour is controlled by outside forces, such as modelling, but that cognitions, in the form of mediational processes, also have a role to play; as such SLT demonstrates a soft determinism stance.
Bandura, in his research with the infamous Bobo doll, and later work with other researchers investigating the role of vicarious learning in shaping behaviour, take a nomothetic approach as he attempts to generate general laws of behaviour which can be widely applied.
Possible exam questions
Briefly explain what social learning theorists mean by modelling. (1 mark)
Define what social learning theorists mean by imitation. (1 mark)
Explain one way in which the social learning theory approach overlaps with one other approach you have studied in psychology. (2 marks)
Ms Karara is a year six teacher. When it is time to go out to break or to go home, she notices that some students in her class push to the front of the queue to line up.
Explain, with reference to social learning theory, how Ms Karara might use vicarious reinforcement to modify the behaviour of her students. (3 marks)
Heather has just started learning to ice skate and is keen to skate well. She watches other skaters on the ice carefully. When she sees another skater make a difficult turn, she then tries to copy the same move. She considers how the other skater was positioning their body weight on their ice blades and whether she can do the same.
Mediational processes have a central role to play in social learning theory. With reference to Heather’s experience, outline the role of mediational processes in social learning. (4 marks)
Kym got trapped in a lift for several hours when it broke down. Now, she cannot face going into a lift at all and is filled with fear at the very thought. Joshua is given some chocolate for cleaning out the litter tray for their pet cat. Jermaine, his twin brother, saw this. The next day, the twin’s mum finds Jermaine cleaning out the cat’s litter tray.
Describe how the behaviour of Kym and Jermaine can be explained by the learning approach in psychology. (6 marks)
Discuss two limitations of social learning theory. (6 marks)
Discuss the social learning theory approach in psychology. (16 marks)
Discuss social learning theory. In your answer, draw comparisons to at least one other approach you have studied in psychology. (16 marks)
