Specification: Learning approaches: the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research
Assumptions
Behaviour can be explained in terms of learning, known as conditioning, including classical and operant
Basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species, therefore research on animals can be applied to humans
Behaviour should only be studied if it can be directly observed and objectively measured
Humans are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) so there is no genetic influence on behaviour
Classical conditioning
One of the first behaviourists to explore the relationship between learning and behaviour was Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning which is a type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex is associated with a new stimulus. He famously tested his theory using dogs, who were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus). This resulted in the dogs producing a salivation response (conditioned response) at the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), even when no food was present. Pavlov demonstrated that repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour. This process can be used to explain the acquisition of phobias and the development of attachment.
Operant conditioning
Developing these ideas, Skinner suggested that behaviour is the result of learning through the consequences of our actions. Skinner conducted research into his operant conditioning theory using rats. He found that three types of reinforcement will affect behaviour:
1) positive reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) and is more likely to be repeated;
2) negative reinforcement – when a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence and is more likely to be repeated;
3) punishment – when a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence and is less likely to be repeated.
Exam Hint: Students often confuse negative reinforcement and punishment. Remember, negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant consequent which makes a behaviour MORE likely to be repeated; whereas, punishment makes a behaviour LESS likely to be repeated.
Skinner created the Skinner box to examine operant conditioning in rats and pigeons. The animal would move around the cage, and when it pressed the lever (by accident), it would be rewarded with a food pellet. The animal would learn, through positive reinforcement, that each time it pressed the lever, it would be rewarded with food. It, therefore, learnt a new voluntary behaviour which is repeated to receive the reward again.
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach
Behaviourists have significantly contributed to the still-developing recognition of psychology as a science. The experimental methods used by Pavlov and Skinner rejected the earlier emphasis in psychology on introspection and encouraged research that focused on more objective dimensions of behaviour. According to behaviourists, this emphasis on the scientific method has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour. These methods have also helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline, which in turn attracts more funding and research opportunities.
The behaviourists were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects. They believed that the learning processes in humans and animals are very similar; consequently, Pavlov conducted research using dogs, and Skinner used rats and pigeons. Using non-human animals in research gives experimenters more control over the process, without demand characteristics or individual differences influencing findings. However, many consider using animals in experiments to be unethical as there is less concern about protection from harm for non-human subjects. Furthermore, some argue that findings from animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour: Skinner’s operant conditioning theory may provide an understanding of rat behaviour, but little about human behaviour.
The behaviourist approach has made important contributions to our modern understanding of human mental illness. For example, many phobias are thought to be the result of earlier unpleasant learning experiences. Consequently, this understanding has helped psychologists develop therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, that attempt to re-condition a patient’s fear response. Also, some addictions such as gambling can be better understood through operant conditioning, as the rewards of gambling could be seen to reinforce the destructive behaviour. This demonstrates that the behaviourist approach has many real-world applications in the understanding and treatment of atypical behaviour.
The behaviourist approach has been criticised for its limited view regarding the origins of behaviour. Behaviourists ignore alternative levels of explanation including the role of cognition and emotional factors in influencing behaviour. Skinner countered this argument, however, stating that for behaviour to be investigated scientifically, it had to be directly measurable and observable, which cognitions are not. Further to this, he said that even the most complex of human interactions could be explained using operant conditioning principles of learning by the consequences of our actions to either repeat or cease the behaviour.
Issues and debates
Since the behavioural approach suggests that all behaviour is learned, it falls on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, in which our experiences and surroundings shape our behaviour directly rather than any internal or biological factors. The behaviourist approach refers to the human mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) suggesting that at birth the mind is blank and throughout life, the slate is filled while behaviour is shaped through learning.
The fact that behaviourists believe that behaviour is controlled by something as simple as a stimulus-response association, as in classical conditioning, is an example of environmental determinism. Behaviourists argue that humans have little choice in their behaviour, and our behaviour is simply the product of environmental learning.
Possible exam questions
A psychologist studying the role of reinforcement in shaping behaviour conducted out a laboratory experiment. To do this, she placed a rat in a box. When the rat pressed a level, first on an accidental basis, they received food treat. With each attempt thereafter, the time taken to press the lever to receive the reward decreased.
Identify the type of conditioning being investigated in this experiment. (1 mark)
Mario often loses his temper when he becomes frustrated or angry. Most of the time he can keep his feelings under control, such as when he is at work. However, one day, after some negative feedback from his Manager, Mario stormed out of the meeting, kicking a nearby plant pot on his way so hard that it shattered.
Suggest how a psychologist taking the behavioural approach could explain Mario’s behaviour. (2 marks)
Describe one procedure that behavioural psychologists have used to investigate conditioning. (3 marks)
Debbie is telling a story of her childhood to her friend, Harj: “When I was six, and at my sisters’ birthday party, a balloon burst near my face with a really loud bang. Even to this day, balloons still terrify me and I cannot go near them!”
Using your knowledge and understanding of classical conditioning, explain why Debbie is scared by balloons. (3 marks)
Identify and explain two strengths of the behaviourist approach in psychology. (4 marks)
A psychology A-level student, Sian, went home and was telling her Dad, Dafydd, about what she had learned at college that day: Sian said: “The behaviourist approach has been really influential in understanding human behaviour. But, so much of the research has been conducted using animals as participants.’
Discuss the value of the behaviourist approach in understanding human behaviour. (5 marks)
Outline and evaluate the behaviourist approach in psychology. (16 marks)
Outline and evaluate the influence of behaviourists, such as Pavlov and Skinner, to psychologists’ understanding of human behaviour. (16 marks)
