Specification: The study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.
Assumptions
Cognitive psychologists are concerned with cognitive functions like memory, perception and attention
Internal mental processes can be, and should be, studied scientifically
The human mind is similar to a computer as there are similarities in the way information is processed
Cognitive processes can be studied indirectly by making inferences from a person’s behaviour
The cognitive approach
The cognitive approach focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention and consciousness. Since these processes are internal and cannot be studied directly, their operation must be inferred from the observation and measurement of visible human behaviour.
To assist this inference, cognitive psychologists make use of theoretical models and computer models. Theoretical models enable the visual representation of complex conceptual processes, and computer models provide a basis for research within the field of cognitive psychology.
The study of internal mental processes
Internal mental processes are the operations that occur during thinking. Examples include how we turn the information from our eyes into a usable form (perception); how we choose what to think about (attention); how we store information to use in the future (memory); how we construct meaningful sentences to communicate with others (language); and how we construct new solutions (problem-solving). Cognitive psychologists appreciate that these concepts cannot be directly observed and use inferences as a means of understanding human experience from observable behaviours.
The role of the schema
Schema theory is an information-processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks. Schemas are mental frameworks of information that we use to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to new situations. For example, a classroom schema might consist of a whiteboard, tables, chairs, books, pens and a teacher. As we age, our schemas become increasingly sophisticated, and adults develop more and more schemas to cover most situations.
Schemas are an example of top-down information-processing, because they provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time. Schemas allow us to make sense of ambiguous situations by “filling in the gaps” in our knowledge. They enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete which makes it much easier to deal with complex situations. However, schemas can lead to errors in information-processing such as prejudice and discrimination.
The use of theoretical models
Theoretical models are visual representations of internal mental processes that are used to help researchers simplify and study complex processes. Theoretical models are typically diagrams or flowcharts that show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it. For example, the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) is a theoretical model of memory.
The use of computer models
The development of the computer in the 1960s led to computer models emerging within psychology to explain different mental processes. For example, the analogy of long-term memory being the hard disk and short-term (working memory) being viewed as the computer’s RAM (Random Access Memory) has been applied to the human brain. Computer models of memory have been particularly useful in the development of artificial intelligence (AI).
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience is a relatively new field that tries to bridge the gap between the cognitive and biological approaches. This field has resulted from the development of techniques for scanning the living brain while it is actively processing information. Cognitive neuroscience uses non-invasive brain scanning techniques like PET (positron emission tomography) scans and MRIs (magnetic resonance imaging) to
understand which parts of the brain are active while specific internal mental processes are being used.
For example, brain scans have highlighted the distinction between different types of long-term memory (LTM). The hippocampus is associated with episodic memory; the temporal lobe is associated with semantic memory, and the cerebellum and motor cortex are associated with procedural memories. Brain imaging techniques have also been successful in establishing a link to certain mental health disorders, such as the association between obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and the parahippocampal gyrus.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach
Recent advances in neuroimaging technology, such as fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), have lent weight to theoretical models by providing empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions under controlled conditions. However, the precise meaning of this activity is still a matter for debate. Some claim that these techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding, while others insist that neuroimaging evidence is only correlational, and therefore does not constitute true scientific validation of either theories or models. Nevertheless, the availability of such techniques and their increasing sophistication is one clear strength of the cognitive approach.
A speciality of the cognitive approach is its recognition of the complexity of human behaviour, and thus its hesitation to assert a reductionist explanation of mental processes. There can be no doubt that all cognition rests on a biological foundation since it occurs in the brain and is made possible by its operation. But the precise nature of consciousness and memory and perception are not easily reducible to purely biological outcomes, as the lived experience of all human beings seems to demonstrate consistently.
The cognitive approach has many real-world applications. For example, cognitive research into memory and the effects of misleading information has reduced the use of eyewitness testimony in court cases, and led to major reforms in police procedure, like the use of the cognitive interview. Additionally, a better understanding of thinking patterns has helped professionals understand and treat mental illnesses such as depression through the use of therapies like CBT. This indicates that cognitive research has made concrete contributions to contemporary society and has developed professional understanding in many fields.
However, not all human behaviour can be captured under the cognitive umbrella; the research in this field has tended to neglect other significant dimensions of behaviour such as emotion and motivation which may be linked to cognition, but are not the same. The cognitive approach is careful to insist that we are more than biological machines but often overlooks the equally important fact that we are not only cognitive creatures.
Issues and debates
The cognitive approach pays respect to both the nature and nurture element of this debate. It recognises that behaviour is the result of information processing which occurs in the brain and is of biological origin (nature), while concepts such as schema are modified by experience in the environment (nurture).
Furthermore, the cognitive approach straddles both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches in psychology since it utilises both experimental methods to generate universal laws to explain behaviour and draws on the findings of individual case studies, such as Phineas Gage and Clive Wearing.
Possible exam questions
Explain what is meant by ‘inference’. (1 mark)
Outline one issues with studying internal mental processes. (2 marks)
Explain one strength and one limitation of the cognitive approach. (4 marks)
Identify two main assumptions of the cognitive approach in psychology. For each assumption, justify your response with reference to a topic in psychology. (4 marks)
Outline two features of the cognitive approach. Explain two limitations of the cognitive approach. (8 marks)
Discuss the cognitive approach in psychology. (16 marks)
Outline the cognitive approach. Evaluate the research methods used by cognitive psychologists in this field of investigation. (16 marks)
Outline key assumptions of the cognitive approach. Compare the cognitive approach in psychology with the psychodynamic approach. (16 marks)
