Specification: Content analysis: Content analysis and coding. Thematic analysis.

Content analysis

Content analysis is a type of observational technique which involves studying people indirectly, through qualitative data. Qualitative data collected in a range of formats can be used, such as video or audio recordings (or the interview transcripts), written responses (such as those provided to an open question in a questionnaire), or even children’s drawings. Content analysis helps to classify responses in a way that is systematic, which can then allow clear conclusions to be drawn.

It is important for researchers using content analysis to have their research questions formulated, so that they know exactly what their content analysis will focus on. Researchers must familiarise themselves with the data before conducting any analysis, so that they are confident that their coding system is appropriate for the task ahead.

Content analysis is particularly helpful when conducting research that would otherwise be considered unethical. Any data that has already been released into the public domain is available for analysis, such as newspaper articles, meaning that explicit consent is not required. For material that is of a sensitive nature, such as experience of domestic violence, content analysis can also prove useful, as participants can write a report of their experience which can be used in analysis. This allows high quality data to be collected, even in difficult circumstances. 

Coding

Coding is an important step in conducting content analysis and involves the researcher developing categories for the data to be classified. Qualitative data can be extensive in its nature, for example interview transcripts, and so coding can be helpful in reaching succinct conclusions about the data. These categories provide a framework to convert the qualitative material into quantitative data, which can then be used for further (statistical) analysis.

For example: A researcher is interesting in investigating prejudice and discrimination in the media towards refugees. In order to do this, they will follow the following procedures:

1. The researcher will select a newspaper article relating to refugees.

2. They will read through the text, highlighting important points of reference and annotating the margins with comments.

3. Using the comments made in the margins, the researcher will categorise each excerpt according to what it contains, e.g. evidence of prejudice, discriminatory language and positive regards towards refugees.

4. This process will be repeated for each newspaper article of interest identified by the researcher at the outset.

5. Once all the steps above are completed for each newspaper article, the categories which emerged through the process of analysing the content are reviewed to decide if any need refining, merging or subdividing.

6. With the well‐defined (operationalised) behavioural categories, the researcher returns to the original articles and tallies the occurrence of each ‘behaviour’ accordingly.

7. The qualitative data has now undergone analysis to produce quantitative data which can undergo further analysis such as statistical testing, descriptive statistics and producing graphs or tables.

Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a technique that helps identify themes throughout qualitative data. A theme is an idea or a notion, and can be explicit (such as stating that you feel depressed) or implicit (for example, using the metaphor of a black cloud for feeling depressed). Thematic analysis will produce further qualitative data, but this will be much more refined.

If we revisit the example above with the researcher reviewing the articles for evidence of prejudice or discrimination against refugees, the following procedures would be followed:

1. Carry out steps 1–3 as if conducting a content analysis (see above).

2. Thereafter, the researcher must decide if any of the categories identified can be linked in any way, such as ‘stereotypical views’, ‘economic prejudice’ or perhaps ‘positive experiences for refugees’.

3. Once the themes are successfully identified, they can then be used in shorthand to identify all aspects of the data that fit with each theme. For example, every time the researcher identifies an example within the data of a positive experience for the refugee, they might write ‘PER’ (positive experience for refugees) alongside it, so that they are able to quickly re‐identify this theme in subsequent analysis of the data.

4. Once all the steps above are completed, the themes which emerged will be critically reviewed to decide their relevance.

5. This process will be repeated for each newspaper article of interest identified by the researcher at the outset.

6. Qualitative comparisons are drawn between major and minor themes of the analysis. 

Evaluation of content analysis and thematic analysis

There is the possibility that content analysis can produce findings that are very subjective. For example, the researcher may interpret some things said in an interview in a completely different manner from how they were intended, due to their own preconceptions, judgements or biases. Cultural differences may contribute to inconsistent interpretation of behaviour coding since language may be translated and therefore interpreted differently by someone of a different nationality. As a result, the validity of findings from a content analysis can be questioned since it may not have been measuring what it intended to with accuracy.

A strength of both content analysis and thematic analysis is high ecological validity. Much of the analysis that takes place within these research methods are basing their conclusions on observations of real‐life behaviour and written and visual communications. For example, analysis can take place on books people have read or programmes that people have watched on television. Since records of these qualitative sources remain, replication of the content/thematic analysis can be conducted. If results were found to be consistent on re‐analysis then they would be said to be reliable.

Possible exam questions

1. Identify and explain one strength of using a thematic analysis. (2 marks)

2. Explain one limitation of using content analysis in psychological research. (3 marks)

3. A researcher used content analysis to investigate how the perceptions of women about themselves changed when they returned to work following a period of maternity leave. He identified a group of women who had all returned to their previous jobs after having a child in the last six months. He asked the women to keep a diary recording their thoughts and feelings every day for two months before and for two months after they returned to work.

Explain how the researcher could have used content analysis to analyse what the women had written in their diaries. (4 marks)