Specification: Self‐report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured. Questionnaire construction, including use of open and closed questions; design of interviews.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a type of ‘self‐report’ technique, where participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. They can be designed in different ways, and can comprise of open questions, closed questions or a mixture of both.

Open questions

Open questions allow participants to answer however they wish, and thus generate qualitative data since there is no fixed number of responses to select from. Responses to these types of questions provide rich and detailed data which can provide insight into the unique human condition.

Evaluation of open question questionnaires

A strength of using open questions is that there is less chance of researcher bias. This is especially true if the questionnaire is also anonymous, since the participant can answer the questions in their own words, without input from the researcher providing a set number of responses. Consequently, there is less chance of the responses being influenced by the researcher’s expectations.

However, there are limitations of using questionnaires in psychological research. Participants may answer in a socially desirable way, where they try to portray themselves in the best possible light to the researcher. This means that the open response may lack validity as it is not their natural response.

Closed questions

Closed questions restrict the participant to a predetermined set of responses and generate quantitative data. There are different types of closed questions, including: checklist, Likert response scale and ranking scale.

• Checklist: This is a type of question where participants tick the answer(s) that apply to them. For example: What is the highest academic qualification you hold?

  • GCSEs  A‐levels Bachelor’s Degree Postgraduate Degree

• Likert Response Scale: This is a type of question where participants rate on a scale their views/opinions on a question. For example: Psychology is the most interesting A‐Level subject. (Circle the number that applies).

  • 1 Strongly agree

  • 2 Agree

  • 3 Not sure

  • 4 Disagree

  • 5 Strongly disagree

• Ranking Scale: This is where participants place a list of items in their preferred order. For example: Rank the following activities according to how much time you spend on them each day. (1 = most time, 4 = least time).

  • Talking face‐to‐face

  • Talking on the telephone

  • Text messaging

  • Other (e.g. Snapchat or Instagram)

Evaluation of closed question questionnaires

An advantage of using closed questions is the nature of the data collected which is quantitative. This type of data makes it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphical format. This is useful because direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals. This means the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data that can lead to further research being conducted.

There are limitations to adopting a closed question format in questionnaire research. By sticking to a predetermined list of questions, the researcher is unable to pursue and explore responses that are of particular interest. Additionally, closed questions often produce a response bias. This can happen because the participant doesn’t take the time to read all the questions properly and, for example, selects ‘yes’ for each of their answers. This means that the data generated may lack internal validity.

Questionnaire design

The following factors should be considered when designing questionnaires:

·       Keep the terminology simple and clear.

·       Keep it as short as possible.

·       Be sensitive; avoid personal questions. If you must, collect personal information at the end.

·       Do not use leading questions.

·       Do not use questions that make assumptions or sweeping statements.

·       Pilot and modify the questionnaire.

Interviews

Interviews are another type of self‐report technique which predominantly take place on a face‐to‐face basis, although they can also happen over the telephone.

There are three different interview designs: interviews can take the form of participants just answering a predetermined list of questions (structured interviews); they can be more like a relaxed conversation between friends (unstructured interviews); and, although it is not on the specification, it is also important to recognise that many fall between the two (semi‐structured interviews).

Responses are usually recorded, with the use of an interview schedule that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s).

Structured interviews

Structured interviews have the questions decided on in advance and they are asked in exactly the same order for each interviewee taking part. The interviewer uses an interview schedule and will often record the answers to each question by taking notes/ticking boxes on their schedule.

Evaluation of structured interviews

An advantage of using structured interviews in psychological research is that the quantitative (numerical) data is easier to statistically analyse. This is useful because direct comparisons can be made between groups of individuals meaning that the researcher can look for patterns and trends in the data. Additionally, because the questions are standardised and asked in the same sequence every time to all participants, the interview is easily replicable to test for reliability.

There are disadvantages of using the structured interview method. It is possible that over the course of running several interviews following the same schedule with different participants, that investigator effects may play a role. This is where the interviewer may, unconsciously, bias any responses given to the questions they ask by their tone of voice, intonations, body language and so on. Likewise, investigator effects can also occur between researchers where there is more than one researcher conducting the interviews.

Unstructured interviews

Unstructured interviews are conducted more like a conversation, with the interviewer only facilitating the discussion rather than asking set questions. Very little is decided in advance (only the topic and questions needed to identify the interviewee). Therefore, this type of interview typically produces a large amount of rich qualitative data. Answers will usually be audio or video recorded, as to write them all down as quickly as they were spoken would be impossible for the interviewer, and would also spoil the relaxed atmosphere of the unstructured interview.

Evaluation of unstructured interviews

The use of unstructured interviews can increase the validity of findings by significantly reducing the possibility of investigator effects. The open question schedule in unstructured interviews means that the investigator does not control the direction of the conversation to meet their own preconceived agenda. Participants can justify their answers in their own words with opinions rather than trying to guess the aim of the study through any clues given. This is useful because it reduces the possibility of participants displaying demand characteristics in their interview responses.

Unstructured interviews generate large quantities of rich and interesting qualitative data. This allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning and gain further information from the participant if required to fully understand complex human behaviour. However, unstructured interviews are more time consuming and costly, as this type of interview requires a trained psychologist to administer them. A further issue with this method is that statistical analysis can be challenging, as the data collected is qualitative, making it more difficult to identify patterns and trends without undergoing a content analysis first.

Semi-structured interviews

Semi‐structured interviews comprise of mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer at the time. As with unstructured interviews, the interviewer can deviate from the original questions and consequently this type of interview also typically produces rich qualitative data.

Evaluation of semi-structured interviews

The use of semi‐structured interview can increase the validity of findings. The open questions in semi-structured interviews may encourage the participant to be honest in their answers, thus reducing social desirability bias as participants are able to justify their answers in their own words with opinions. However, the interviewer still retains control over the semi‐structured interview schedule compared to an unstructured interview, which can result in investigator effects which can affect the behaviour of the participants negatively.

Semi‐structured interviews generate rich and interesting qualitative data. As with unstructured interviews, this allows the interviewer to clarify the meaning of the participants’ responses and gain further information if required. This provides a unique insight into explaining human behaviour. However, as a result, analysis of such data can be more difficult, time consuming and expensive to conduct compared to quantitative data which is easier to statistically analyse without undergoing further processing beforehand.

Possible exam questions

1. Suggest one closed question that a researcher could use in a structured interview investigating religion. (2 marks)

2. Explain one disadvantage of using open questions in an interview rather than closed questions. (2 marks)

3. Explain what is involved in self‐report. (3 marks)

4. Dr Clamp was interested in investigating attitudes towards Brexit. She is unsure about which methodology to select for her study.

Explain the difference between a structured interview and an unstructured interview. (3 marks)

5. Two psychology undergraduates are interested in devising a questionnaire to collect data on their campus about attitudes towards student tuition fees.

Briefly discuss the benefits for the researchers of using both closed and open questions on their questionnaire about attitudes to tuition fees. (4 marks)

6. Outline two differences between an interview and a questionnaire. (4 marks)

7. Evaluate the use of questionnaires as a research method. (4 marks)

8. Evaluate the use of self‐report techniques, including both questionnaires and interviews, in psychological research. (8 marks)